A streamlined outline to help you study for final However, don't assume that the final is a subset of this document. Don't forget the labs. --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapters 1-3 Historiography - choosing a narrative you can focus on different currents, such as: political, economic, intellectual, military, cultural, social look for a trend or ethos Historical analysis how to organize historical information challenge/response, etc. People have always had technology, which started with tool making but science comes later Bronowski: 3 traits of humans We are tropical creatures, but we can adapt We are curious, want to improve our immediate environment We plan for the future First major change was agriculture grow your own food instead of roam and hunt/gather Encouraged people to stay in one place Neolithic settlements in time become cities, civilizations division of labor New problems to solve Science limited to what was needed to run society, no abstraction irrigation, metallurgy, geometry, astronomy We've always had the need to tell time (of day and of year) interest in astronomy, astrology We attach meaning, rituals to cycles of time When looking for a civilization, what evidence do we seek? Cities were very dense: why? Privacy was not valued ------------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 4 Each society has a dominant mission, ethos, or ideology. To look for one, consider what the leaders want. The whole world was "poor" by our standards of living until the 20th century. Ancient Greece was a conducive place for free study of science. not influenced by empires; it was on the edge of civilized world topography: can't have big farms relied on trade and the sea - exposed to many ideas no major institutions, power vacuum an easy life Some Greek thinkers Aristotle's elements based on opposites of hot/cold, wet/dry Plato disrespected direct observation, not an astronomer stressed geometry, perfect solids Thales generally regarded as first philosopher, omitted gods from explanations Greek mathematics (particularly Euclid and Pythagoras) hide certain facts as a mystery cult abstract thought, the need for proof Four elements: earth, air, fire, water ether was beyond the earth A separation of the earth and heavens Foundation of alchemy How accurate was Greek science? they knew of force, friction, and performed some experiments rational explanations to explain phenomena e.g. They noted Polaris stationary, and that a mast is the last part of a ship to disappear over the horizon ----------------------------------------------------- "The Backbone of Night" Important Greek people: Thales of Miletus land created by natural forces, not by a Babylonian god predicted eclipses Anaximander known for his world map and sundial Polycrates the tyrant of Samos, came to power around -540 ordered slaves to dig tunnel to carry water, job took 15 years Theodorus of Samos famed engineer; invented key, ruler, carpenter's square, level, lathe, bronze casting, central heat Empedocles used water thief (klepsydra) to discover air believed species survive due to "craft, courage or speed" or else die off Democritus, from Ionian colony of Abdura coined the term "atom", inspired by cross section of apple believed matter is fundamental makeup of world, not spirits Anaxagoras add drop of cream to wine: not all physical changes can be seen reasoned that the sun is really big, at least 100 miles across it's a fiery stone, not a god other stars are too far away for us to feel their heat moon shines reflected light from sun arrested for impiety, but released by Perecles Socrates Plato Aristotle Pythagoras lived during time of Polycrates, -500s attracted group of followers fascinated by the 5 regular solids kept secret the irrationality of sqrt(2) circles and spheres are perfect: influences idea of planet orbits for centuries earth is a sphere stressed mathematical proof coined word 'cosmos': well-ordered and harmonious universe discover natural laws by pure thought, rather than observation, experiment Aristarchus of Samos proposed heliocentrism by his time, most learning was going on in Alexandria Ptolemy charted over 1000 stars "Almagest" Hellenistic Greece science funded by state: institutions, zoos, research labs emphasis on applied math dissect bodies military applications Rome more known for engineering projects and materials than Greece: roads, cement, military, aqueducts Dark Ages after Rome return to superstition burn what is not acceptable no social role or purpose of science no incentive to seek practical answers or applications not much written knowledge ------------------------------------------------------- "Grain in the Stone" A city needs to have roads, bridges, communication with outside world (e.g. messengers), surrounding agricultural base, walls for security be rich enough to afford various craftsmen or specialists 1200s saw much experimentation in cathedral building most significant architectural development until the steel & concrete Today, we use words like structure, pattern, plan, arrangement to explain scientific ideas. Architecure as a metaphor Michaelangelo: "All imagination begins by analyzing nature." Bronowski: "The world can only be grasped by action, not by contemplation." "In the evolution of man... it is the hand that drives the subsequent evolution of the brain." "Civilization is not a collection of finished artifacts. It is the elaboration of processes." ------------------------------------------------------- "The Hidden Structure" Extraction of metal from ore, begins around -5500 copper + tin = bronze: soft + soft = hard: discovered -3800 iron extracted in -2500, but not used heavily until -1500 India had steel by -1000 steel = iron with < 1% carbon Paracelsus: treatment of patient depends on diagnosis Basel by 1527 already had a humanist tradition 1543: 3 books published in same year foreshadow a scientific revolution Anatomical drawings of Vesalius translations of rediscovered Greek mathematics and physics of Archimedes Copernicus: Revolution of the Heavenly Orbs There was never a golden age of science. Things are not discovered at the same time. "Ask an impertinent question, and you're on the way to a pertinent answer." -------------------------------------------------------- "The way we are" We are what we know. People in the West have always been curious. We can't leave things alone. We look for order in nature. We institutionalize good answers, and add them to our education. Some communities, like Tibetan monks, protect themselves from change We institutionalize change - how? We are never 100% sure of the truth. --------------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 1 - Power Almost all work was done by human or animal. Devices to make use of human power: windlass, ropes, pulleys, block & tackle, treadmill Northern Europe used horses; Greece and Rome more often used oxen Compromise between horse and ox: mule or donkey Water mills appear by the -00s 3 types of water wheels: vertical shaft undershot: wheel sits in moving water overshot: water falling from above causes rotation: most efficient They had some necessary ingredients of steam engine: boiler, valves, piston, cylinder but they only got as far as inventing "Hero's fountain" = sprayer Lack of high quality fuel - only had wood & charcoal the only coal was in outcroppings in England --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 2 - Water supply Vitruvius wrote a whole book on the subject Open and closed conduit systems overall slope should be at least 1:200, never rise above intake If hill gets in way of open conduit, better to dig through it air shafts dug every 100' for inspection Opposite of tunnel is need to support conduit above ground substructio = wall up to 6' high aqueduct for > 6', with arches height of aqueduct limited to 70' or else you need multiple levels of pillars Earthenware pipes preferred over lead A city would have 3 supply lines of water one for people to fill their buckets one for the public baths one for private residential taps You pay tax based on width of nozzle, not how much water actually used shows they did not care about dynamic calculations Rome had 200 million gallons of water per day. --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 3 - Water pumps Purposes: irrigate garden, get water out of mine or ship, put out fire Swing beam is oldest type A beam is pivoted. One end has bucket, other has counterweight. You shift the beam. Hard work. Screw pump, like a modern auger spiral inside a cylinder already in use by Archimedes' time -200s Can be operated by 1 person's feet, can pump 35 gallons per minute Drum pump: big rotating wheel with 8 compartments water came out thru little holes near center into outflow pipe often clogged with sediment Bucket-wheel: outflow pipe near the top Several can be used at once. Outflow of one can be taken up by the next pump above. Chain of buckets, powered by treadmill Force pump: use pistons to suck the water into a reservoir --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 4 - cranes and hoists Use 2 ropes: a stay rope, and another to help lift Use multiple pulleys and blocks to multiply your strength How do we pick up a load? 4 possibilites Crab forceps Fashion the block originally to have legs on both ends to cut off later Lewis bolt: set down in hole that is dug at the top of the block Rope underneath Used by Archimedes in Siege of Syracuse to sink attacking ships --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 5 - catapult Goal was to improve the bow as a weapon to shoot projectiles 1. belly shooter: apply tension to the bow by pushing with your belly can shoot 6' bolt (missile) or stone shot (ball) 50 lb projectile could go 300' 2. torsion spring catapult (torsion means twist) purpose: pin down enemy infantry; knock down wall --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 6 - ships Athens relied on its navy and merchant marine "Principal technique of naval fighting ... was ramming." Importance of speed & maneuverablility Rome was not near a good port, reluctantly raised navies later --> Most ship development was Greek. Side of ship consists of planks of wood, fitted edge to edge, not overlapping Adjacent planks were braced with joinery Hull strengthened by belts tightened by windlasses Long ship: war or pirate, fast rowing, 10:1 length/width ratio beach it stern first w/ladder ram at bow with chisel blades Round ship: merchant, sailing, 4:1 length/width ratio no ram, flat bottom Instead of rudder, used steering oars, one on each side near stern In Homer's day, a war ship would have up to 50 rowers, 25 per side evidence: vase paintings Later ships grew in size, more banks of rowers. Trireme: 3 banks of rowers on each side, including 1 in outrigger beyond hull Over 200 crew, including 170 rowers Can achieve 9 knots over long periods Made of softwood pine/fir imported from Thrace, Macedonia lightweight, but easily waterlogged, so beached as soon as possible being light, didn't actually sink; just dead in the water can tow to shore to make repairs Ramming required great precision, or you could be rammed yourself Largest Greek war ship had crew of 7250, including 4000 oarsmen, 2850 marines. Cargo ships generally sailed, not rowed square sail across middle of hull No sailing November - March due to weather Navigated by landmarks, stars If wind can't take you where you want to go, rotate the sail, otherwise "tack" Large cargo ships stayed in water for maintenance became waterlogged to protect from naval borer: coat with cloth or lead Largest vessels could carry 1000 tons of goods By -31, Rome annexed Egypt and imported 150,000 tons of grain per year. --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 7 - travel on land Light transport: use mule Heavy transport: use ox Mule preferred over horse more patient to carry load; tougher skin; can handle all weather Can cover 50 miles per day Can carry up to 200 pounds, if evenly distributed on either side of animal Donkeys smaller, could carry up to 120 pounds People often would buy an animal for a trip, and sell animal at destination Greek/Roman wagons not as advanced as Celtic (we don't know why) typically pulled by 2 animals Landels criticizes design of harness. When a technology doesn't exist or is a failure, 2 possibilities: 1. don't know how to do it 2. no demand for the technology (e.g. We don't fly Concorde anymore. It's not due to incompetence.) Oxen were slow, could achieve just 5 miles/day, but easy to feed --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 8 - Progress of theoretical knowledge Rome almost entirely interested in just practical applications e.g. hydrostatics, mechanics, chemistry Greek ethos (orientation of thinking) haunted by change, death desired stability, rest, permanance Evidence: poor understanding of acceleration, ballistics What is our ethos? Plato: because physical objects change, they are just facades of reality They can't be understood. Better to understand eternal concepts. Greek vague sense of time day split into 12 hours, but length varied with the seasons Clepsydra: ~ 6 minutes, used in court, rarely anywhere else Archimedes: hydrostatics argued using axioms and proof by contradiction accepted a spherical earth, gravity drawn to center objects sink or float according to their density volume (of crown) = volume of water that can fill the space Pliny: empirical observation Ocean is curved w/earth because mast is last to disappear Hero: disproved idea about water pressure through a siphon constructed his own siphon to check it out Here we see a glimpse of a scientific method, something we have institutionalized. What are we doing now only rarely, that in the future will be the accepted norm? But neither Archimedes nor Hero tried to measure speed of anything just interested in achieving equilibrium Ctesibius noted that clepsydra flow rate slows as water is depleted, so it can't be used to measure fractional time units. His solution: design one with constant flow. In other words, instead of studying the problem, get rid of it. Greek analogy of the universe: like a bowl of soup smaller lumps flung to periphery Chemistry doctors used variety of animal, vegetable, mineral chemicals knew of poisons tried potions at random until something worked, if not already familiar w/ailment No precision, quantification acid = something that tastes like vinegar --------------------------------------------------- Landels chapter 9 - Sources Hero (+00s) influenced by famed engineer Ctestibius (-200s) many written works Pneumatica: air pressure, devices to dispense liquids such as wine some could be used to awe audience to believe it to be a miracle Other topics wrote about: puppet theaters, mechanical devices (gears, pulleys, windlass, crane, press), mirrors, geometry, surveying (distances and areas) Vitruvius wrote De Architectura an architect needs an extensive education including mythology, medicine, music Frontinius: water supplies and engineering intimately familiar with all aqueducts Pliny the Elder - encyclopedia Naturalis Historia "historia" meant enquiry or research Final thoughts on classical period Difference between something existing and being in common use What did they lack? Electricity, lenses, periodic table, calculus, etc. What do we lack? --------------------------------------------------- "Ancient Computer" Number of gears relate to complex motion of moon We surmise it was created by Archimedes But he died 150 years before the shipwreck: is Antikythera unique? --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 10 Europe in Middle Ages enjoyed agricultural boom bigger plow, the horse, crop rotation Increased wealth able to finance centers of learning monasteries in rural areas, universities in cities Village or manor house shares expensive equipment Cities, universities, knights No science yet; education centered around 7 liberal arts grammar, rhetroic, logic, arithmetic, geometry, music, astronomy Universities did not conduct research 1100s and 1200s: translate classics into Latin Scholars understand universe according to Aristotle When in doubt, Bible trumps science Some new work in math, astronomy, medicine Medieval physics: search for innate property "why do things move?" instead of a mathematical treatment 1300s famine, plague, wars After recovery, increased wealth and Renaissance Military technology gunpower: first firearms and cannon fortified cities --------------------------------------------------- "In the light of the above" Martianus Capella (400s): 7 liberal arts were foundation of ed for 700+ years Augustine fall of Rome: good riddance the world isn't worth bothering about, only the hereafter matters Monasteries kept knowledge, but purpose was to find religious symbolism constantly looked back on age of greatness Charlemagne (ca. 800) wanted more literacy, ordered copies of all old works By 1000, market days become permanent small towns hotels and restaurants begin to appear Libraries of Toledo discovered ca. 1090, mass translations begin Greek --> Arabic --> Spanish --> Latin some new words needed like 'zero' By 1150 every major scientific subject was rediscovered Shocked to find that much information was pre-Christian 1200s - friction between university students and admin critical examinations of theology vs. hard line Compromise: 2 kinds of truth: revealed and secular By 1300, Augustinian disregard for the world was gone, replaced w/curiosity ----------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 11 Backdrop is Reformation and Counterreformation of 1500s / 1600s Reformation - rise of secular authority over the Church Copernicus - sought a simpler planet orbit theory than Ptolemy's noted retrograde motion, why inner planets never high in sky matter "naturally aggregates into spheres", doesn't fly off into space Sun at center; other stars very far out Theory not adopted; Church doesn't perceive a threat Tycho Brahe - copious observations, party animal large, precise instruments, well funded Comet motion crosses planet orbits: no celestial spheres Kepler first attempt wrong: inspired by 5 perfect solids 3 laws of planetary motion 1. Elliptical orbit with sun at one focus 2. A planet sweeps out equal areas in equal time 3. (orbit time)^2 proportional to (radius)^3 -------------------------------------------------------- "Harmony of the Worlds" Kepler spent a lot of effort on his perfect solid theory. Are people today also wasting time on wrong theories? -------------------------------------------------------- To help understand the chronology, here is a list of people & dates. Roger Bacon 1214-1292 promoted experimental science Filippo Brunelleschi 1377-1446 perspective drawing 1425 Martin Luther 1483-1546 nailed theses 1517 Henry VIII 1491-1547 sought divorce 1527 Elizabeth I 1533-1603 reigned from 1558 William Shakespeare 1564-1616 Oliver Cromwell 1599-1658 John Milton 1608-1674 Karl Marx 1818-1883 Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 book 1543 Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 Astronomia Nova 1609 Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 Starry Messenger 1610, Dialogue 1632 Isaac Newton 1642-1727 Principia Mathematica 1687 Francis Bacon 1561-1626 promoted the scientific method Rene Descartes 1596-1650 Gottfried Leibniz 1646-1716 Carl Gauss 1777-1855 Christiaan Huygens 1629-1695 Anton van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 Alessandro Volta 1745-1827 Carl Linnaeus 1707-1778 le Comte de Buffon 1707-1788 Charles Darwin 1809-1882 Gregor Mendel 1822-1884 Alfred Wallace 1823-1913 Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 John Dalton 1766-1844 atomic theory Joseph Fourier 1768-1830 heat equation (pde) Hans Oersted 1777-1851 E & M relationship Humphry Davy 1778-1829 electric charge has place in chem Augustin-Jean Fresnel 1788-1827 evidence for optical waves Michael Faraday 1791-1867 E & M fields Nicola Carnot 1796-1832 engine cylinder theory, thermodyamics James Prescott Joule 1818-1889 James Clerk Maxwell 1831-1879 Dmitri Mendeleev 1834-1907 J.J. Thompson 1856-1940 discovered electron Ernest Rutherford 1871-1937 Albert Einstein 1879-1955 relativity paper 1905 Niels Bohr 1885-1962 Werner Heisenberg 1901-1976 uncertainty principle 1927 Abraham Darby 1678-1717 John Harrison 1693-1776 chronometer/longitude ~1760 Benjamin Huntsman 1704-1776 steel Josiah Wedgwood 1730-1795 John Wilkinson 1728-1808 Gottlieb Daimler 1834-1900 Alexander Graham Bell 1847-1922 Thomas Edison 1847-1931 Nikola Tesla 1856-1943 Guglielmo Marconi 1874-1937 ----------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 12 Telescope changed Galileo's life Wrote Starry Messenger: moon detail, new stars, Jupiter's moons left university, supported by de Medici family member of informal science academy Saw Venus phases as proof of heliocentrism condemned by established academics & theologians Galileo saw no conflict with religion Church could reconsile by providing new explanation he believed science is the main originator of truth Inquisition bans Starry Messenger, tells G not to "hold or defend" Copernicus Next, G writes Dialogue on the 2 Chief World Systems in Italian, lampooned geocentrism Trial G offers to condemn Copernicanism. Expects slap on wrist. Inquisition smells blood and treats this as confession of guilt. House arrest for life - G moves on to study non-astronomy physics Science does well when there's freedom & independence to pursue it, regardless of type of government G studied the loaded beam, but engineers nonplussed Also studied falling bodies of different weight, including incline plane focused on how, not why, things fall Already convinced of answer before conducting experiment, which contrasts with how we do experiments today Avoided question of the mover (fixed by Newton later) Catholic scientists afraid to publish after Galileo more freedom in Northern Europe, e.g. Netherlands Are there modern-day Galileos? Do we require people to believe in certain things? ------------------------------------------------- "Music of the Spheres" Alhazen (ca. 1000): we see object because it directs & reflects a ray of light inspired perspective in art, but ignored by science for 600 years Kepler, Newton, Leibniz introduced new concepts of tangent, acceleration, slope, infinitessimal, differential, fluxion (delta t amount of time) We now understand time "as a natural element in the description of nature" time as a number, a process --------------------------------------------------- "Point of View" Ptolemy's world atlas had gridlines - helpful to estimate distance Brunelleschi 1425: perspective drawing of church, used mirror to model asked people to look thru hole in painting. held up mirror/took away image and real thing looked the same Before Brunelleschi, objects were painted with God's view, theological sizes Perspective can help estimate size of a distant object Alberti's book How To Paint: use gridded frame creates a checkerboard pattern for figures to stand on All lines converse to infinity at horizon In a church, lines should converge at altar --------------------------------------------------- "Traveller's Tales" Netherlands: many voyages to Indonesia, Australia, China fluyt pacifist foreign policy tolerant of unorthodox opinions Light was motif of the age Christiaan Huygens exposed to great education (father well connected, hosted parties with writers, authors, musicians, etc.) first to see surface features of Mars observed that Saturn's rings don't touch planet discovered Titan Anton Leeuwenhoek discovered "animalcules" and sperm cells with microscope --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 13 Timeline to consider: Luther ~ Council of Trent ~ Galileo ~ Newton 1517+ 1540s-1560s 1610s-1630s 1660s-1700s England: civil war (during 30 years war) plague, fire, restoration of monarchy with parliament in control Newton embodies scientific revolution studied optics, occult, alchemy National academies of science created around his time, and dominate scientific establishment until 1800s when universities gain more clout Newton's Principia Mathematica: math treatise of calculus & physics rivalry with Leibniz Compared moon to cannon ball to explain orbit in terms of gravity Natural theology: God is the great clockmaker Newton and Descartes keep theology close to science Technology still independent of science, based on experience Instruments still poor in quality, so not much scientific experimentation --------------------------------------------------- "Majestic Clockwork" Galileo, followed by Kepler, follwed by Newton Kepler turns Copernicus into a formula Newton: no metaphysical speculations (didn't publish the how/why) but in private, studied alchemy and wrote on Book of Revelation in London, became intellectual dictator By 1710s, England was preoccupied with money, South Seas Bubble science & Newton satirized, mocked Newton: space is absolute Newtonian physics begins to break down around 1900 Thompson and Morley experiments: speed of light is constant Einstein thought experiments about riding on light beam Einstein's evidence of God: simple (not convoluted) answers to simple Qs --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree on electricity William Gilbert 1600s "De Magnete"; coined 'electricity'; some are conductors Luigi Galvani 1790 frog legs respond to Cu wire Alessandro Volta 1800 battery: pile of Cu/Zn disks sep by salt-watery cloths Sir Humphry Davy 1809 arc light; battery to decompose compounds, discovered K Hans Christian Oersted 1820 noticed that a battery can make a magnet move Andre-Marie Ampere formulas for electrodyn.; steel bar + electricity = magnet Michael Faraday insulated wire around iron can create electricity James Clerk Maxwell 1865 formulas for E&M; believed light was electric Lesson of dependence on tech: In 1850, electricity was only used in telegraph By 1900, we would be lost without it electric lighting, generators, railroad, heating, welding, vehicles --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 14 UK Industrial Revolution, approx. 1760-1860 transform from rural to urban nation Population growth -> pressure on land, and especially fuel wood scarcity -> switch to coal Steam engines by Newcomen (1712) and Watt (1765) canals: solution to 1 problem (coal) causes another (how to move it) railroads first pulled by horse before by steam living by the clock child labor laws favoring management over labor insurance, stock exchange textile industry relies on power looms interchangeable parts and assembly line Companies hire so many people, they become like cities rise of labor movement theories of capitalism & communism --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 15 Be patient, change doesn't happen all at once New science subjects appear, requiring experimentation People begin to collect and classify things: rocks and organisms Phlogiston theory & discovery that different gasses exist Everything in physics could be explained in terms of calculus unifying mechanics, optics, electicity, magnetism Fourier - heat equation (explains movement of heat over time) Carnot - engine cylinder theory Mendeleev's periodic table "Second scientific revolution" - origin of today's sci establishment German universities teach science, departure from classical curriculum research done in universities, award PhD the word "scientist" pasteurization, vaccines, paint Marconi and Edison Responses to industrial revolution Luddites (skilled weavers objecting to power looms) William Blake's poem "And did those feet in ancient time" became patriotic song "Jerusalem" --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 16 species seem fixed "Natural theology": understanding God as the great designer Linneaus Buffon Lamarck (changes in response to environment) fossil evidence Has change in earth's history been gradual or sudden? Lyell's 3-volume work Principles of Geology Darwin's voyage Malthus --------------------------------------------------- "Ladder of Creation" Darwin and Wallace were naturalists Evolution theory, a product of Victorian England Wallace studies beetles Darwin inspired by 1831-1836 trip to South America life diverges (speciation) when geographically isolated species are not immutable Darwin could not explain the mechanism, until he read Malthus organisms must compete to survive Natural selection is the origin of creativity in diversity of life It's the mechanism to explain evolution Formerly, people believed new species formed spontaneously, such as crocodiles from mud Pasteur, French chemist, finds chemical basis of life Would E.T. recognize us as a form of life? Thomas Jefferson: "There is not a truth existing which I fear or wish hunknown to the whole world." Darwin originally reluctant to publish Origin of Species. What would be a shocking discovery today? Would you keep quiet? --------------------------------------------------- "Fit to rule" Linneaus believed God is organized - inspiration to plant classification Swiss idea of Great Chain of Being Buffon: if birds separate creations, why similar structure? Cuvier: comparative anatomy Romantic movement in the arts Burke's warning: Sometimes a scientific theory can be taken too far Nazism, Communism --------------------------------------------------- "How did we get here?" Important people, some we've seen before: Hans Sloane 1680-1750s collects specimens Georges Cuvier ~1810s comparative anatomy; fossils, mammoth Buffon estim age of earth by cooling iron balls Robert Chambers 1844 "Vestiges": everything derives from earlier form Darwin 1859 finally publishes opus Alfred Wegener 1912 continental drift Galen ca. 200 gladiators' doctor Filippo Brunelleschi 1400s Andreas Vesalius 1500s first anatomy theater: report what you see William Harvey 1628 circulation of blood thru heart Giovanni Borelli 1600s biomechanics Robert Hooke 1600s cork cells under microscope Galvani 1791 frog leg responds to current Alexander von Humboldt 1800s electrodes on himself; geographer, naturalist Robert Remak 1800s saw dividing cells of frog Maurice Wilkins 1950s scatters X-rays at DNA Rosalind Franklin 1950s photographed the DNA Francis Crick 1950s double helix James Watson 1950s double helix Scientific change sometimes results from human factors such as: power, passion, chance, rivalry 1400s: exploration of entire world at time, people thought man was pinnacle of God's creation Dualism, man as apart from nature 400 years later, this is replaced with man being a part of nature Quarries reveal fossils Initially, people didn't understand what they were mud's unsuccessful attempt to create life? By 1700s, accept that they are former living things --> the distant past was a very different place 1700s was an age of experiment (recall Harrison as well) Buffon experiments with cannon balls to crudely estim age of earth Geology: humbling insignificance of human time scale Victorian cities grew rapidly. Cheap transport & manufactured goods Factory bosses of humble origins become rich (upward mobility made theory of evolution more palatable) Chambers: Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation everyone talked about it "transmutation": all things develop from an earlier form humans are extension of nature, not apart from it book paved way for people to later accept Darwin's evolution concept Ethos of Victorian UK: progress, change, improvement idea of evolution came from this context 1912 Alfred Wegener: continental drift theory but he had no hard evidence - ridicule confirmed ~40 years later Meteors or comets strike earth cause mass extinctions We're lucky to be here --------------------------------------------------- "What is the secret of life?" Galen stressed the liver: where blood was formed Essence of life: spirits come from liver, brain, heart Italian Renaissance: increased desire for realism and humanism too (get reward on earth, not just in heaven) Leonardo da Vinci produced 600 sketches on human anatomy he drew what he saw Anatomy studies flourished in Padua (Italian: Padova) university's anatomy theater built in 1594 Traditional dissection: professor reads Galen while student pokes around and finds relevant organ Padua: students encouraged to describe what they saw themselves not what someone else tells them what they are seeing Andreas Vesalius, professor of surgery & anatomy atlas of human body corrected classical mistakes about liver, heart, brain England in 1600s was divided; civil war; tension between old & new Conventional view of blood: made in liver, infused with essence of life by heart, used up by body William Harvey investigated function (physiology) of organs There is so much blood, liver can't make it all The heart is a pump Less spiritual, more physical explanation of how body works Clock as metaphor consists of other devices inside it: cogs, weights, pulleys A complex machine is made up of simple parts Are natural things driven by a natural clockwork? Giovanni Borelli apply mechanics to life how do limbs and muscles work? --> biomechanics Clocks constantly have to be wound up or else they stop what is equivalent to human body [I'm surprised video didn't mention food as a possible answer.] Ancient idea of "vitalism" life is more than the physical body people searched for this intangible substance was it electicity? Galvani's frogs Alexander von Humbolt experimented on himself, noted that electricity can cause muscle contractions, or inability to move But people could never bring dead back to life using electricity. Robert Hooke: cork "cells", but idea not picked up on for 200 years 1800s Berlin: Prussian approach to university education Science becomes institution, not product of lone genius Prussian biologists discover cells in all life forms Cells hard to see under microscope - everything transparent until creation of artificial dyes in 1850s, also invented in Germany "chromosomes" After WW2, some physicists wanted to do more life-affirming research than making bombs --> apply nuclear science to biology Pictures of DNA, to understand its structure DNA is not enough by itself to create life. It's just a set of instructions to be read by other molecules. (Similar to computer program?) Secret of life is its complexity, working against entropy --------------------------------------------------- "Lost at Sea" 1707 fleet lost - parliament offers big award, invites many crazy solutions John Harrison of Barrow - no formal schooling, no naval background perfected his clockmaking, tested one clock with another usued unusual Caribbean tree's wood (lignum vitae) that never dries out invented everything he needed Cassini in France studied moons of Jupiter in 1660s Louis XIV not happy that his realm smaller than he thought Newton convinced that a clock would not work general rivalry between theory and experimentation Several challenges: variations in temperature extreme motion of ship needed to make it small for improved accuracy Adversary: Nevil Maskelyne, astronomer Advantage: You need clear weather to see stars, not so with clock 1764 successful test on trip to Barbados, 30 second error in 46 days To win prize, you have to tell us how it works; but if I tell you how it works, you can steal my idea [how do we resolve this today, in peer review?] Son writes letter to George III in 1772, receives an audience with king "By God, Harrison, I shall see you righted!" --------------------------------------------------- "What the doctor ordered" Why do people get sick? Today we know about viruses & bacteria. Thru ~1800, disease was considered a general condition of the body. Imbalance of the 4 humors: blood, phlegm, choler, black bile analogous to 4 classical elements: air, water, fire, earth associate with time of year: spring, winter, summer, fall too much gives you: flush/sanguine, sluggish, anger, melancholy manufactured in: liver, lungs?, ?, kidneys Notice pairs of opposites? [compare with traditional Chinese medicine] Exotic approaches or potions were attractive e.g. crab eyes, the "snake oil" business Johann Frank (late 1700s) early advocate for public health, like Benjamin Franklin Vienna hospital administrator believed that women in childbirth should be in bed, state support for 6 weeks doctors should do autopsies to learn more about disease After French Revolution, many hospitals built in Paris had 7x as many beds as all of UK Urban living conditions initially blamed for 1831 cholera deaths reality: human waste collected in cesspools near fresh water pump John Snow 1854 study of cholera in London Crawford Long: ether Joseph Lister: disinfectant Robert Koch: thickening agent to keep culture preserved for microscopes; discovered cholera bug Today, treatment and epidemiology are quantitative, impersonal, medicine as an industry that perpetuates itself --------------------------------------------------- "Matter of fact" Thanks to specialization: we trust science and tech: other people's facts we don't have to make things from scratch anymore Before ~ 1450, life was intensely local monasteries reported on events only with 7 miles people illiterate, everything oral The few books that did exist got misplaced due to no filing system After Black Death, economic boom for survivors increase in demand for paper to record documents demand for writing indulgences in an era of sin Johannes Gutenberg missed a pilgrimage to Aachen decides to solve the "printing problem" by using a press letter molds and moveable type 400 times cheaper to print a book than by hand Church sells far more indulgences Dispute with Luther: propaganda war Church: index of prohibited books Printing houses brought people together to share ideas books proliferate, reduced need to memorize diy books fashion became international - images of Florentine Renaissance information becomes a commodity maps, calendars, almanacs, other pratical books New ideas on how to do things: 1. verify information by looking it up in a book science of direct observation took off by 1550 including technical drawing, wood cuts [art too] people wrote more directly; don't need rhyme anymore poetry became poetic; prose took over facts no need to memorize, or rely on old memories 2. indexing books --> cross referencing e.g. you can see what subjects are related to surveying besides how to fire a cannon more accurately how subjects might relate, and direct you to a new subject you hadn't considered Standardized languages By 1550, it was possible to have books on every known subject Purpose of information - help people make decisions We already had presses, e.g. for grapes (recall windlass) A demand develops for the book --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapter 17 Ford adopts assembly line in 1913 10607 Model T's sold in 1908 $850 each 730041 Model T's sold in 1916 $350 each (mult by about 24 to get today's $) 2000000 Model T's sold in 1924 $290 each tech system: "does not exist in a social vacuum but is connected with makers, users, and other technologies in often complex ways.... integrate fuel, an engine, transmission and power train, brakes, suspension, lights and electrical subsystems..." development of electric grid; TVA airlines electric appliances for domestic chores radio, TV, VCR urbanization, suburbanization --------------------------------------------------- McClellan chapters 18-20 Quantum theory, uncertainty principle sociobiology and Lamarckism rise of statistics, measuring human qualities Physics -> bomb -> Cold War longevity -> the need for governments and people to prepare for retirement genetically modified food debate PC for games science needs only 1 solution to a problem tech: several solutions: competition, practicaclity, style $ for medical research 40,000 PhDs awarded annually in the US - too many? --------------------------------------------------- "World within world" Dalton proposed atomic weight as the unique feature of elements Mendeleev continues this work plays with cards of elements - periodic table 1897 J. J. Thompson's discovery of electron focus shifts from atomic weight to atomic number Cubism: discovery/search of hidden structure inspires artists Rutherford suggested electrons orbit like the planets do discovers proton Bohr: if matter comes in quanta, so should energy (of electrons) evidence from atomic spectrum release of energy when electron jumps from outer to inner orbit Helium first discovered in sun spectrum in 1868, not on earth Boltzmann: entropy is a measure of disorder Life is a madly improbable assemblage of matter As recently as 1900, people debated the existence of atoms --------------------------------------------------- "Knowledge or Certainty" There is no absolute knowledge in science All information is imperfect (error component) Visible light is only an octave of entire electromagnetic spectrum Gaussian curve: probability, error bar, area of uncertainty Friedrich Hagel in 1800 philosophically proved there are exactly 7 planets. 8th planet discovered soon after. German railway network made it easy to meet peers in sci community During WW1, German physicists preoccupied with relativity. Are electrons waves or particles? Heisenberg 1927: electron is particle w/limited info can specify location at this instant, but can't impose speed & dir conversely: insist on speed & dir, but can't know start or end point --> Principle of Uncertainty Recognition has judgment built in. Some tolerance for deviation or error. Impractical to be perfect. Nazi regime felt it knew all the answers. leadership principle: the leader is always right Leo Szilard wanted to keep information about chain reaction secret, gave idea to Admiralty Pressure not to publish work that could be used for ill Einstein writes letter to Roosevelt warning of possibility of atomic bomb protested nuking of Japan Bronowski: Holocaust victims "killed not by gas, but by arrogance, dogma, ignorance" Avoid desire for absolute knowledge & power. --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree: modern machinery Industrial Rev: modern factory system, labor: people using a machine Examples: spinning & weaving machines, cotton gin linotype machine: instead of manually setting letters for printing printing itself becomes more automated by 1900, able to print 500,000 pages per hour --> cheap books Other new inventions for the workplace, often making use of electricity elevators, sewing machinies, typewriter --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree: power All energy ultimately comes from sun e.g. sun upon water -> vapor -> rain -> dams e.g. "bottled sunshine" -> forest -> coal (fossil fuels) Steam engine purpose: convert heat to work (Reviews steam engine) Richard Trevithick perfects rail by steam ca. 1800-1830 --------------------------------------------------- "Drive for power" Industrial revolution was a social revolution people move to cities much innovation was happening away from London Distinction among: necessity, decency, luxury Many things now affordable to poor, such as silverware, plates, pots, pans, underwear, soap, glass, iron bed But at work, people had to conform to the pace of machines Work ethic spreads to Sunday school: "Satan finds some mischief for idle hands to do." Energy becomes the central concept of science, unifying principle. Inspires Romantic movement (poetry, music) New concept of nature as the carrier of energy Man himself is the carrier of a divine or natural energy Industrial revolution gave people freedom to fulfill wants they had in themselves. Idea inconceivable earlier. Romantic thought inspired people to make use of their freedom Industrial Revolution also established social equality and rights we depend on social mobility, mertiocracy, success based on what you do Renaissance established dignity of the person Industrial Revolution sought to unify nature --------------------------------------------------- "Worlds without end" Piltdown man: considered scientific fact until revealed as hoax Bhuddism explains the world as completely as science, but does so by inhibiting scientific investigation. witch trials reveal: existential fear, or fear of what you can't control e.g. angering God or conjuring devil Chinese word Tao Confirmation bias: You will find what you expect to find --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree - transportation In absence of (steam) power, you could pull train by horse, just like a horse could pull load on a boat in canal. Later, electric power used, especially in cities. Urban planning: in cities it became too dangerous for people to live near work. So, commute from residential neighborhood. But you can only travel so far just by walking. Need for public transport systems for larger cities. Bicycle (as well as car) is product of several small inventions of the constituent parts. bicycle: pedal, crank, tire, chain car: spark plug, carburetor John Wilkinson: first machine tool: "boring" machine for cannon precision was key Evidence of how transportation inspires leisure and imagination? --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree - communication French semaphore system in use by 1794 Earliest experiments with telegraph (1774+) used one line for each letter. :( In public use by 1844. Coherer: an early radio technology for wireless telegraphs not a commercial success in 1901 wireless telephony looked more promising, leading to radio US and UK linked by telegraph cable 1858, better line installed 1866 As of 1901, no trans-pacific cable The concept of world news is born with international telegraph Crabtree 1901: "To-day the Paris and New York editions of the same paper contain practically the same world news." State of telephone in 1901: unsolved problems how to have > 1 conversation on the same wire (we use diff frequency ranges) "It is impossible with present instruments to communicate vocally through a submarine cable more than 27 miles in length." telautograph - early fax machine phonograph / talking machine, 1886 use wax cylinders to hold up to 1200 words of speech, cost up to $3 at the time Motion pictures Edward Muybridge 1872 did it the hard way series of cameras on a racetrack Kinetoscope, Edison 1897 Kineto-phonograph --------------------------------------------------- "Eat, drink and be merry" pike square Napoleon's army needed to feed itself bottled food, later canned food Food preservation: shipping meat from Australia? need to keep cold Thermos Rocket like thermos - need to store cold liquid fuel Plane and rocket engine strength usually measured in terms of "thrust". How to put into perspective versus a car. Try this formula: pounds of thrust = 2.75 * (weight in lbs) / (0-60 accel time in seconds) Example figures: car 2,000 lbs of thrust Boeing 747 200,000 Concorde 150,000 Saturn V 9,000,000 - has as much power as ~ 4000 cars --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree - military Common theme: arms race between armor and projectile The 1800s were not just a big century for electricity and its applications The first guns were easy to protect from It could take hundreds of cannon balls to sink a ship But by 1900, warships exterior could be 2 feet thick of solid metal Round bullets and cannon balls gave way to shells: projectile with pointed end In 1800s, heavy guns could accommodate as large as 13" wide shell, weighing 1100 lbs costing over $500 each (in 1900) can be fired about once every 2 minutes Gets expensive quickly. Torpedos cost ~ $3,000 in 1900 Shrapnel shell, named after inventor "High explosives seem to waste most of their energy in tearing the shell into small bits" Firearms "rifling" meant grooves cut into the bore grooves should spiral to make bullet fly more straight to target elongated bullet - less air resistance rifling not adapted to cannons until 1800s Machine gun Gatling gun and Colt machine gun appear in 1800s, but very heavy Ships went from wood to ironclad as result of Crimean War. Battle of Sinope - Russian navy routs Turkey (1854) Telegraph becomes significant in Crimean and US Civil wars Balloons become useful in US Civil War and Franco-Prussian war (1870) Submarines, torpedo boats in use since US Civil war Gunpowder = 75% saltpeter (potassium nitrate) + 15% charcoal + 10% sulfur Crabtree mentions alternative explosives discovered in 1800s "liquid air", nitroglycerin, gun cotton, cordite, lyddite --------------------------------------------------- "The wheel of fortune" This episode reviews: clock making, Galileo, Huygens, Huntsman's steel, assembly lines, interchangeable parts Frank Gilbreth - how to make human movement more efficient --------------------------------------------------- Crabtree - photography and printing "Photography is based primarily upon the power of sunlight to blacken the salts of silver." i.e. various chemicals respond differently to light Camera obscura: dark chamber In a dark room, a pinhole of light will prject the outside scene on the opposite wall (upside down). An artist could then trace and draw this scene accurately. The idea now is that we want to records this image on paper, chemically. Daguerrotype, 1830s in Paris by Louis Jacques Mande' Daguerre Copper plate coated with silver iodide Plate exposed to light, to obtain image from outside camera Discovered the need to let the image develop in the dark. expensive First pictures taken of moon, stars 1840 Stars can be pictured even though we can't see them - leave film exposed for hours They also fixed problem of the stars moving Discovery of X rays (Roentgen) in 1896. Linotype machine and typewriter Remington: first commercially successful typewriter, 1867 --------------------------------------------------- "Faith in numbers" Jacquard loom - first use of punch cards to program a machine to weave complicated patterns in textiles Herman Hollerith - tabulator and punch cards for 1890 US census Punch card becomes a standard means of computer input until rendered obsolete about 1980, with widespread adoption of terminals, keyboards and PCs --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapters 1-2 Charles Babbage and Ada Byron 2 machines: difference engine and analytical engine analytical engine would have been a programmable computer, unfinished 100 years later it inspires Howard Aiken when he develops Mark I "computers" before WW2 were analog devices. They were designed to model a physical phenomenon. One machine to solve one problem. e.g. tide predictor by William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) create a scale model of a bay, fill it with water, measure Vannevar Bush worked at MIT, later becomes science advisor to FDR 1912 profile tracer: attach to bike to measure topography, draws on paper 1928-31 creates "differential analyzer" to solve ordinary differential equations Howard Aiken 1936 - needs to build a better machine than differential analyzer collaborates with IBM, they build the Harvard Mark I, 1937-1943 Weighed 5 tons, 51' long, could store 72 numbers Multiplication took 6 seconds, log/trig functions 1 minutes Could be programmed in advance, so it could run for hours. Was revealed to public in 1944 Popular Science Monthly: "Robot mathematician knows all the answers" [Probably no coincidence that the first robotic science fiction radio stories date from 1944.] Consider this: Why was IBM eager to create machines for big universities like Columbia and Harvard? They probably saw synergy & thought of future market. Monroe Calculating Machine Company had turned down proposal. Have you heard of them? Mauchly & Eckert ENIAC: designed to do thousands of calculations per second but it can't read instructions on cards that fast. Problem has to be pre-wired like a telephone exchange. EDVAC: John von Neumann inspires idea of storing program in memory along with the data. Alan Turing Colossus at Bletchley Park 1943 theory on the limits of computing, 1936 Claude Shannon - information theory --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapter 3 Maurice Wilkes visited America after war. Saw the Bush differential analyzer, as well as ENIAC. Was convinced that stored program was way to go. Built EDSAC at Manchester. By 1949, was able to write assembly programs on machine. IBM realized by 1951 that it needed to shift to data processing tech. Around 1950 only 2 countries had a significant number of companies trying to build computers: about 30 in US and 10 in UK. Other major powers still reeling from war. 3 types of companies tried to build computers 1. Already tech: electronics and control equipment firms RCA, GE, Raytheon, Honeywell, Philco, Bendix 2. Business machines: IBM, Remington Rand, Burroughs, NCR, Underwood, Monroe, Royal 3. Start-ups: Eckert & Mauchly's Electronic Control Company Engineering Research Associates often these were bought up by other firms, like Remington Rand Eckert & Mauchly got the Census Bureau to promise to buy first commercial machine in 1946, which became UNIVAC. Agreed-to price was 300k, but it wound up costing 1m to build. Hoped to recoup losses with additional sales. [variable cost taking over from fixed costs] A.C. Nielsen agreed to buy 2nd UNIVAC in 1948. In 1950 IBM refuses to buy out E&M's Electronic Control Company - IBM already had hundreds of workers on the problem themselves - E&M don't fit into IBM culture - antitrust concerns But Remington Rand gave them an offer. UNIVAC finally delivered 1951, made history on television in 1952, predicting result of Presidential election Grace Hopper: - Worked on Harvard Mark 1 - at UNIVAC, she created Flow-matic, a data-processing language, which was later modified into COBOL programming language. - coined word "bug" --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapters 4-5 Bell Labs William Shockley: Caltech/MIT; primary theoretician, led chalk talks Walter Brattain (natural-born tinkerer) John Bardeen: PhD Princeton; played golf and bridge together Solid state physics - make electrons move along surface After 2 patent applications, Bell Labs announces transistor to public 1948 Licensed patent to other companies for 25k TI finally able to convince Bell Labs it was serious enough to join club 1952 Mass production of transistors by 1954 Goal was to reduce price to $3 to enter consumer market Regency radio set: TR-1, $49.95 in 1954 Portability (and in cars) was a big hit Shockley's team falls apart. He goes to California. Fred Terman, dean of Stanford engineering, founds industrial park 1953 Shockley hires Robert Noyce and Gordon Moore but everyone wants to leave Shockley and form company w/o him! In 1957 They find a backer: Sherman Fairchild owner of Fairchild Camera and Instrument (Fairchild eventually becomes Intel Corporation) Jack Kilby of TI and Robert Noyce of Fairchild indepently invent microchip Companies come to a sharing agreement Starting Intel. Leadership team consisted of inside guy (Moore), outside guy (Noyce), man of action (Grove) --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapter 6 MIT receives PDP-1 in 1961 first computer designed for interactivity, made by DEC had keyboard & monitor students make video games for it Steve Russell starts to write game Spacewar featuring a "Minskytron". Needed sin/cos routines, accurate constellations. Prototype ready by 1962. Open-source Nolan Bushnell in Utah exposed to Spacewar while in college Worked for arcade that featured pinball & driving games By 1971, creates video game, founds Atari 1972 Atari produces next game, Pong, became first home computer game --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapter 7 What is a computer? hardware (keyboard, monitor, or something else) purpose (game, to communicate) What subjects do you need to understand, to do good CS? We now see the importance of psychology. Internet ultimately came out of academia, military and industry. Vannevar Bush himself was all 3: dean of MIT engineering, founded Raytheon, science advisor to FDR Bush advises Truman to invest in science "absolutely essential to national security" NSF created. As a result, new research labs multiply across the country, attached to universities or corporations. Joseph Carl Robnett Licklider: decentralized network; user interface studied relationship between psychology & technology (e.g. psychoacoustics) "moved to MIT to start a psychology section based in the EE Department" Until 1950s the only way to submit a job to a computer was in a batch. You sent the cards and waited for the result. Licklider and John McCarthy: time-sharing (i.e. multitasking) Concept of OS keeping track of each process Result of multitaking: computer could be interactive! Licklider's 2 big ideas: interactivity, networks Licklider: we need better video on screen for people to comprehend output furthermore, should integrate with a "thinking center" so that many people at their consoles could interact influential paper 1960: "Man-Computer Symbiosis" Sputnik (1957) made US government take science more seriously (D)ARPA recruits Licklider, 1962 Isaacson introduces 2 people at ARPA Information Processing Techniques Office: Bob Taylor affable scientist, adopted, moved a lot as a kid studied psychology, like Licklider Larry Roberts intense engineer Taylor thought it wasteful for multiple people to each request computer --> time sharing would be more cost efficient Also: noticed that people interested in knowing what other people were doing -> demand for networking Also: why do I need separate accounts on 3 different computers? Gets funding to create ARPA net to "permit research centers to share computing resources, collaborate on projects, and allow Taylor to jettison two of his office terminals." ARPANET up and running 1967 3 ways to send a message circuit switching: like a telephone conversation message switching: like a telegraph msg: send whole thing down the line packet switching: now, break up the message first By 1973 there were several packet-switching networks, but they were incompatible with each other. ARPANET, ALOHAnet, PRNET (San Francisco using radio), SATNET Bob Kahn and Vint Cerf work to create Internet, 1973 Plan included gateway computers between existing networks, and a common protocol for all. It was TCP/IP Internet created by many people as a peer-sharing project. "The result of such peer sharing was a network that facilitated peer sharing.... built on the belief that power should be distributed rather than centralized..." --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapter 8 Ethos of 1960s: peace, love, freedom, sharing, communal living Technologists and social activists had common goals in bringing computers "to the people" Douglas Engelbart: 1961 mouse saw computer as "augmenting human intellect" not replacing human Alan Kay: dream was to create a PC goes to work for Xerox PARC collaborates with Bob Taylor Develop the Xerox Alto in 1973. Company made 2000 units, just saw it as an experimental machine. NY executives: "The computer will never be important to society as the copier." Several activists in Bay Area collect money to invest in computers to give people free access. Homebrew Computer Club - create your own computer Ed Roberts in Albuquerque founds MITS develops Altair 8800, first commercially successful PC limited utility --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson chapter 9 Paul Allen and Bill Gates knew they were not hardware gurus. Focus on software In school in 1967, they learn BASIC programming language study the computer's operating system and assembly language Acquire time on a rented PDP-10 minicomputer Gates: workaholic at Harvard, very good mathematically, meets Steve Ballmer in economics class Altair 8800 prompts Allen and Gates to plan to start company They go to Albuquerque Program BASIC for Altair, to make computer easier to use Found Microsoft 1975 Move the company to Seattle area 1978 Homebrew Computer Club wants BASIC for free Pirated copies of BASIC made it popular New hardware manufacturers eager to sign licensing agreement w/Microsoft. Microsoft's biggest fish: IBM Steve Jobs at Apple wants to create GUI but Microsoft Windows comes out 2 months before the Mac Federal appeals court rules in favor of Microsoft "Apple cannot get patent-like protection for the idea of a GUI or the idea of a desktop metaphor" Stallman (GNU) and Torvalds (Linux) Irony that small rebelious startups become major corporations --------------------------------------------------- Isaacson - chapter 10 Ray Tomlinson at MIT creates e-mail starting in 1971 Based on commands SNDMSG and CPYNET used by ARPANET computers. SNDMSG: to someone on the same computer CPYNET: copy file to a folder on another machine He also used @ symbol to separate user & host name. By 1973, 75% of all ARPANET traffic was e-mail. Mailing lists were developed, such as for Sci Fi lovers. List moderator gave excuse to justify keeping it: "a valuable training exercise in juggling large information exchanges" 1978: bulletin board service 1979: Usenet newsgroups started by Duke & UNC students ca. 1970: affordable modems to connect to phone receiver 1975: electronic modems become legal Beginnings of mainstream home Internet connection, e.g. AOL William von Mwister creates "The Source" 1978, offering bulletin boards, wine ratings, weather, airline sched, horoscopes, stock quotes; forums, chat rooms, private file-sharing areas Considered itself a utility like water Competitors included Compuserve, Prodigy 1979, Asimov proclaimed "The Information Age" Commodore wanted an online service for its buyers in 1985 CVC became Quantum, offering Q-Link, $10/mo with live chat rooms called People Connection but only 10k signed up because Commodore not a big market share executive Steve Case wanted to court Apple users in 1987, they create Apple-Link in 1988, they create PC-Link with Tandy Begin to realize not a good idea for 1 network per manufacturer Hence, AOL Steve Case: "It now seems really silly, but up until 1992, it was illegal to connect a commercial service like AOL to the Internet." September 1993, AOL was allowed to have its users connect to the Internet as a whole, instead of just its own private network Senator Al Gore in 1986 looks into widening Internet bandwidth, opening Internet to more users. 1991 High Performance Computing Act 1992 Scientific and Advanced Technology Act (allowing AOL to...) Inspired by his father's efforts to widen roads. --------------------------------------------------- Isaasson chapter 11 This chapter is about 1. Development of the WWW 2. Web browsers 3. Search engines (Yahoo, Google, Alta Vista, etc.) 4. Miscellaneous types of Web sites like blogs Does not seem to mention much about: .com domain and other top level domains Domain name service (DNS) Easier ways to make your own Web page E-commerce, database & programming interaction with Web pages (Javascript, PHP) advertising, porn, gambling Security, hacking, spam, viruses; secure Web site, Certif. auth. broadband to support video - he doesn't mention modem speeds! New problems: services that exploit Web, increase traffic, reputation hotels fining patrons for negative reviews censorship, free speech, e.g. China Tim Berners-Lee: WWW Marc Andreessen: Mosaic Number of Websites in the world grew from 700 in Jan 1994 to 100k in Dec 1995. --------------------------------------------------- Miscellaneous Travelling entertainers (Vaudeville, circuses) went around the country with the advent of railroads. Around 1910, this niche begins to be filled with movies, later "talkies." Entertainment at home - Radio was centerpiece of living room during 1920s - 1950s. Television begins to supplant radio in 1950s, right about the time it becomes possible to carry radios portably and in cars. Color TV becomes standard in US in 1966.